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Body language is a type of nonverbal communication in which physical behaviors, as opposed to words, are used to express or convey information. Such behavior includes facial expressions, body posture, , eye movement, touch and the use of space. Although body language is an important part of communication, most of it happens without conscious awareness. In social communication, body language often complements verbal communication. Nonverbal communication has a significant impact on doctor-patient relationships, as it affects how open patients are with their doctor.
As an unstructured, ungrammatical, and broadly-interpreted form of communication, body language is not a form of language. (1993). 9780195068993, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195068993 It differs from , which are true languages with complex grammar systems and exhibiting the fundamental properties considered to exist in all languages.Klimt, Edward S.; & Belling, Ursula. (1979). The signs of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. .Candler, Wendy; & Lille-Martin, Diane. (2006). Sign Language and Linguistic Universals.: Cambridge University Press.
Some researchers conclude that nonverbal communication accounts for the majority of information transmitted during interpersonal interactions.Onsager, Mark. "Understanding the Importance of Non-Verbal Communication", Body Language Dictionary , New York, 19 May 2014. Retrieved on 26 October 2014. It helps to establish the relationship between two people and regulates interaction, yet it can be Ambiguity. The interpretation of body language tends to vary in different cultural contexts. Within a society, consensus exists regarding the accepted understandings and interpretations of specific behaviors. However, controversy exists on whether body language is universal. The study of body language is also known as kinesics.
At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. More recently, however, a study conducted by researchers at Northeastern University found that people could convincingly fake a Duchenne smile, even when they were not feeling especially happy.Brunstein, A. (2007). Eye to I (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
The action of the pupil corresponds to mood and communicate the mood of a person when observed. Research has found that people have no control over their pupils, which involuntarily expand when expressing interest in another person or when looking at something. Normally, eyes instinctively blink at around 20 times per minute, but looking at a person the viewer finds attractive can make this rate faster. The eyes can communicate information that words may not be able to, the intensity and duration of eye contact can determine someone's intentions depending on the setting. According to the academic researcher Deepika, in the workplace, strong eye contact is usually translated as sincerity and open communication. Furthermore, there are instances where people use closed communication, which refers to when people seem resistant to communication, for example, the avoidance of eye contact or crossed arms are interpreted as lack of interest regardless of whether it is intentional or subconscious.
Studies and behavioral experiments have shown that facial expressions and bodily expressions are congruent in terms of conveying visible signs of a person's emotional state, and that emotions can be judged with a high level of accuracy based on facial expressions. At the same time, the brain processes another person's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.
The angle of facing and positioning of a person's head can be indicative of their mood, when considered along with patterns of muscular tension that occur concurrently at the face and neck. Tilting the head up may demonstrate 'superiority emotions' such as self-assurance, pride, or contempt. When it is tilted down, this may indicate 'inferiority emotions' such as shame, shyness, or respect. Nonetheless, the accuracy of such interpretation depends on the intensity of the feeling or other context-related factors. For instance, feelings of contentment may instead feature the head being angled down somewhat.
In many cultures, nodding of the head is considered a sign of saying 'yes', while shaking the head is usually interpreted as meaning 'no'. In India, a head bobble is the tilting of the head from side to side, whose interpretation can be ambiguous and context-dependent. (2025). 9788132116905, Sage. ISBN 9788132116905
A tilting of the head to the side can be an expression of interest in what the other person is communicating. It may be a sign of curiosity, uncertainty, or questioning. If the head is propped up by the hand when the head is tilted then this may indicate disinterest or be a sign of thinking about something. A head that is tilted forwards slightly while being pulled backward may indicate being suspicious. (2025). 9788132116905, Sage. ISBN 9788132116905
As a person's vocal chords are influenced physically by the tilt of their head and the respective pattern of muscle tension, it is possible to discern their head tilt by listening to how they talk. Head angle and movement have a large impact on the amplitude and pitch of one's speech. (2025). 9781633536715, Mango. ISBN 9781633536715Munhall, K.G., Jones, J.A., Callan, D.E., Kuratate, T., & Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2004). "Visual Prosody and Speech Intelligibility". Psychological Science, 15, 133–137.
Resting position can also indicate one's emotions. A person sitting still in the back of their chair, leaning forward with their head nodding along with the discussion implies that they are open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has their legs and arms crossed with the foot kicking could imply that they are feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the discussion. In a standing discussion, a person standing with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could suggest that they are attentive and interested in the conversation.
In Bali, standing with arms akimbo is considered rude and may send signals of aggression.
When the body language of the chest is assessed in everyday circumstances, it involves an instinctive assessment of these factors of shape and volume. When the posture of the chest is fuller, and it is positioned relatively forward, then this is a sign of confidence. If it is thrusting prominently forward, then this may be an indication that the person wants to be socially prominent and make a statement of physical confidence. When the chest is pulled back then this can indicate a less confident attitude.
If a person positions their chest closer towards another person it may be a sign of paying closer attention to them as part of a conversation, or, in other circumstances, it may be a sign of physical assertion and aggression.
Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one stands, sits or even walks with folded arms, it is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that they have a closed mind and are most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker's viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence. Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If a person is wringing their hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety.
Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one's speech as well as denote the state of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one's index finger is deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures – for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with a palm up open hand. Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show "OK" or "good" in countries like the United States, South Africa, France, Lebanon and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the The finger in some cultures.
It is difficult to distinguish a behavior motivated by an out-group bias—a negative response to a member of a different group—from one fueled by stereotype effect—a cognitive association between members of a specific out-group and a culturally held belief. Some behaviors are unique to some cultures, which leads to the outgroup having a harder time decoding the information, these interactions could lead to out-group bias. An example of a cultural difference in non-verbal communication is between Americans and the Greek. Americans nod up and down to indicate "yes" while they nod side to side to indicate "no". On the other hand, the Greek nod upwards to indicate "no" and downwards to indicate "yes". During American Greek interactions, the cultures clash and have a harder time decoding the non-verbal cues.
Another way that out-group bias could be created is through low and high contact cultures. Low contact cultures are more individualistic, while high contact cultures are collectivistic. Low contact cultures express mostly verbally, and use less of the non-verbal cues, while high contact cultures use both forms of communication at the same time. People from low contact cultures could face a hard time decoding the gestures from those of high contact cultures, this can lead to out-group bias.
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Chest
In general, the relative fullness or shallowness of the chest, especially around the sternum, can be a key indicator of both mood and attitude.
(2025). 9780495599135, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495599135
Gestures
Gestures are movements made with body parts and may be voluntary or involuntary. Gestures can be used to convey various messages about what someone is thinking or feeling. Gestures can even be used to produce language, such as sign language.S. P. More and A. Sattar, "Hand gesture recognition system using image processing," 2016 International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, and Optimization Techniques (ICEEOT), Chennai, India, 2016, pp. 671-675, doi: 10.1109/ICEEOT.2016.7754766. keywords: {Gesture recognition;Feature extraction;Assistive technology;Image segmentation;Algorithm design and analysis;Lighting;Image color analysis;Introduction;Literature survey;Pre-Processing and Segmentation;Feature Extraction;PCA method},
Handshakes
or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2443674
Studies have categorized several handshake styles, including the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. Handshakes are popular in the United States and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying.
A firm, friendly handshake has long been recommended in the business world as a way to make a good first impression, and the greeting is thought to date to ancient times as a way of showing a stranger you had no weapons.
A cultural perception of how someone being light on their feet is an indicator of their mood, is demonstrated through expressions such as spring in their step and walking on air which emphasise that someone is in a positive emotional state i.e. they are happy or elated about something. (2025). 9781771646352, Greystone Books. ISBN 9781771646352 This cultural awareness finds further expression in acting whereby actors manipulate how light or heavy they are on their feet in order to represent themselves as being in different moods. This helps to develop their character to the audience and demonstrate the emotional significance of any social interactions that they are involved in. Such presentations may be supported by other adjustments to the actor's gait in order to emphasise a particular mood. For example, walking with the head hung low, the body bent forward and the shoulders dropped can all build upon an impression of sadness. (2025). 9780240520544, Focal Press. ISBN 9780240520544
As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior. It shows how eye movement and attention can show emotions and interest that help regulate conversations, but is mostly based on culture. Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxons culture, avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness. However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person. Also, in many Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact may be a sign of anger or aggression. In South Asia children are expected to lower there gaze at elders as a form of respect. In many islamic countries prolonged eye contact can be seen as inappropriate and it is customary for men and women to lower their gaze when interacting with each other.
Heslin outlines five haptic categories:Heslin, R. (May 1974). "Steps toward a taxonomy of touching". Paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago
Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering
Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members
Social distance for interactions among acquaintances
Public Distance used for public speaking
In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders".Moore, Nina (2010). Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications. New York: Oxford University Press.
Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination. It can also influence the body language that is used. For example, when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-to-eye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.
As with other types of body language, proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture, and absolutely taboo in another".
A person may alter their body language in order to alter the attitude they convey; this may in turn influence the rapport they have with another person. Whether a formal or informal attitude is conveyed may influence the other person's response.
Nonverbal communication has a significant impact on doctor-patient relationships, as it affects how open patients are with their doctor. Having open body language, which is typically identified as having a relaxed posture, nodding, eye contact can contribute to patients having higher levels of trust with their doctors. According to, W.Y. Kee, patients who had a doctor that avoided eye contact by looking at a screen or had negative facial expressions contributed to patients feeling dissatisfied after their visit.
The way body language is expressed changes depending on the gender and age of the person. Women and men express body language differently, especially in the workplace, women tend to express more intense nonverbal cues than men, this makes the cues easier to decode. These nonverbal signals impact the way men and women interact in the workplace, as according to Deepika, women tend be highly comfortable being close and communicating with other women. This is hypothesized to be the case because people that demonstrate similar nonverbal cues can interpret and decode communication signals more effectively.
Some examples of how people decode nonverbal dominance are silence, loud voices, and a non-smiling face. The study carried out by Burgoon demonstrated how participants could use nonverbal cues better to understand each other during a game of mafia. During the game, the participants had to take on different roles (spies or villagers) which had various levels of authority, as a result, participants adapted their body language to the role they played in the game. The study demonstrated that the spies were less dominant and more trustworthy, while the leader of the group was more dominant and demonstrated this dominance through their loud voice and upright posture. Overall, the study was able to demonstrate a correlation between the participants' role and how they adapted their body language to match the level of dominance.
When people are in an intimate relationship, they often position themselves closer to each other than if they were in a different kind of relationship. Even though it may only be a small distance closer together, an observer can interpret this additional closeness to mean that they are in an intimate relationship. For example, spouses may sit, stand, and walk in each other's intimate space, whereas business colleagues may maintain more of a distance and outside of each other's intimate space. As the spouses are in an intimate relationship, they do not feel the need to maintain the same distance as the business colleagues. (2025). 9781292084596, Pearson Educational Limited. ISBN 9781292084596
One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Paul Ekman, where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.
The term body language is usually applied in regard to people but may also be applied to animals. (2025). 9781556197543, John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 9781556197543
There are numerous studies that support both the cultural equivalence model and the cultural advantage model, but reviewing the literature indicates that there is a general consensus that seven emotions are universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness.
Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile (raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the hands.
The use of body language can be seen in a wide variety of fields. Body languages has seen applications in instructional teaching in areas such as second-language acquisition and also to enhance the teaching of subjects like mathematics. A related use of body language is as a substitution to verbal language to people who lack the ability to use that, be it because of deafness or aphasia. Body language has also been applied in the process of detecting deceit through micro-expressions, both in law enforcement and even in the world of poker.
The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension. Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bi-kinesic'.
The body language of the members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.
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